Section 4: Human Performance Technology

1. Human Performance Improvement
Human Performance Improvement (HPI) is a very interesting and evolving concept in the field of professional practice. It is premised on the idea that job performance is not just motivated by training, but moves beyond that into the realm of interventions. In this realm there are an unlimited number of interventions that can be applied to solve performance problems depending on the individuals and their situations. Here is an example from the perspective of a classroom teacher-student scenario.

Performance problem: In my area of work – which would be my classroom – one performance problem I have had this year is that many of the sixth grade students enter my classroom without the necessary supplies. During the summer months, our district posted school supply lists at major stores. Then at the beginning of the new school year, I clarified what students needed to bring into my classroom. I also stood by my door for the first two weeks of school and reminded students (like a recorded message!). Yet, as the school year has progressed, students are continuing to settle into the classroom after bell without necessary supplies. My usual procedure is to document their behavior, then send them back to their lockers to retrieve the forgotten supplies – which takes up valuable class minutes. I am beginning to sound like a stuck record, and the students are continuing this unacceptable behavior pattern.

Non instructional solution: A non instructional solution that I could implement is to post an attractive, eye-appealing sign outside my door that lists the items each student should bring into the classroom. I could use a different color for each supply and add some catchy clip art that would draw the students to the list but not be overwhelming. Additionally, I could stand by the door as I did at the first of school, and direct their attention to the sign for a few days until they get into the habit of checking the list independently. I could acknowledge those students who have been bringing supplies since day one, and designate them as examples for the forgetful students to follow. Then as I begin to see the forgetful students enter the room fully supplied and ready to work at bell, I could address them by name and compliment them on their responsible behavior. Our school counselor announces students who show good character, so I could also turn in the names of these students to the counselor so she could announce their display of responsibility.

2. Definition of electronic performance support systems
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_performance_support_systems
An Electronic Performance Support System is any computer software program or component that improves user performance.

In Electronic Performance Support Systems, published in 1991, Gloria Gery defined EPSS as:
An integrated electronic environment that is available to and easily accessible by each employee and is structured to provide immediate, individualized on-line access to the full range of information, software, guidance, advice and assistance, data, images, tools, and assessment and monitoring systems to permit job performance with minimal support and intervention by others.

Also in 1991, Barry Raybould gave a shorter definition:
A computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences.

From a business perspective, a former Nortel Networks executive, William Bezanson (2002) provides a definition linked to application usability and organizational results:
A performance support system provides just-in-time, just enough training, information, tools, and help for users of a product or work environment, to enable optimum performance by those users when and where needed, thereby also enhancing the performance of the overall business.

http://www.dpatraining.com/training/epss_main.html
An Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) can be an invaluable tool for your maintenance and production staff. The integration of software tools, leading technologies, knowledge, and learning experiences results in a computerized system designed to support the actual performance of a worker as needed. The EPSS electronic infrastructure will capture, integrate and disseminate the knowledge, information and tools a worker needs to achieve high individual and organizational performance.

http://it.toolbox.com/wiki/index.php/Electronic_Performance_Support_System
Today’s Electronic Performance Support System is really a specialized Knowledge_Management system that empowers operations and training managers to deliver clear, relevant, and company-specific "when, what, and how" information that enables employees to perform their jobs properly.

My preferred definition of electronic performance support systems
I prefer a blend of the definition of EPSS that Gloria Gery and William Bezanson both state. Gery and Bezanson both address the individual access to information, tools, and support. However, Gery specifies “job performance with minimal support and intervention by others” which Bezanson omits. On the other hand, Bezanson emphasizes “just-in-time”, “just enough”, and “when and where needed”, which illustrates in more simple terms the accessibility of EPSS. Simply put: EPSS provides just enough individual, independent access to information, tools, and support just-in-time, when and where needed which results in enhancement of user performance as well as organizational enhancement.


Implementing EPSS
In the past, I think EPSS was not widely used because many businesses and corporations were not aware of its existence. Those few groups who did know about EPSS did not fully understand how to use this system, or perhaps they lacked the confidence to navigate the tools and features of the system. Currently, I believe more people are discovering the efficiency of EPSS, and they are venturing to use it more.

In the future, I have no doubt that EPSS will totally replace training programs not just in the business and education realms, but in all walks of life. Companies and educational institutions will find EPSS to be less expensive, less time consuming, more effective and much more efficient. The users of EPSS will come to appreciate the individual accessibility of the system. Another factor that will lead to increased use of EPSS is that more people will be information literate, having grown up in a digital world, and these “digital natives” will have the experience and prior knowledge to work the EPSS competently and independently.

3. Knowledge management (KM) blended with learning.
In my district over the last two or three years, the problem of staff development and training has become an issue due to budget limitations. Typically, at the beginning of the school year, our district hires special guests to visit our campuses for a day or two and present some type of training. For example, about two years ago we had the Diana Day training on classroom management. However, the cost of procuring these special guests can be very expensive. Then later in the year or during summer months, teachers take whole days to attend workshops. These workshops can be expensive and they take the teacher away from the classroom during the school year.

This year our district is offering a blended approach to staff development through an online system called PD360 Professional Development on Demand. Teachers still attend face-to-face workshops in a classroom type setting but these are limited to fewer in number. The beauty of PD360 is that it provides professional learning and training 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and can be accessed from home, school, or any location where Internet service is available. Whenever a teacher needs information about how to incorporate a particular technique, s/he can login to PD360 and locate a video on the topic of interest. The videos are presented by experts in the field, are brief in length and show classroom examples. I recently viewed a video about “differentiation” and I learned some valuable techniques of how to work the concept of differentiation with my students.

The PD360 program also offers support by allowing teachers from other districts to communicate with one another about what works in their classrooms, and exchange helpful ideas. As soon as a teacher views a video, s/he can immediately begin implementing the information into her/his classroom. There is also a follow up session on PD360 that enables the teacher to respond to questions on how the information or training helped in the classroom. All of the video topics are grade appropriate and relevant.

PD360 not only provides training on varied topics, but it also provides knowledge management ideas that help users apply best practices in innovative ways and then share those best practices with others in the education community. New teachers benefit from this system as well as do seasoned teachers. New teachers receive face-to-face training before the start of the school year, but then they receive a login password in order to access PD360 as often as they need. Seasoned teachers use PD360 to update themselves on the latest trends in teaching/instructional methods and new technologies. So PD360 is a win/win situation for everyone, it is easily accessible 24/7, and it is cost effective.

I use PD360 and I see first hand that it blends instruction and knowledge management – in the workplace and in real time. It also provides communities of practice that foster collaboration. I also find that teachers – especially more experienced teachers- become more acceptable to changing their instructional/learning methods when they receive encouragement from their peer teachers.

4. My informal learning experiences
electronic gradebook: About three years ago, my district started using an online electronic gradebook. During a staff development day, the technology department gave teachers a handbook about the system along with our log-in information, and that was the extent of our training. The staff development took place in the computer lab, so each teacher sat at a computer and just logged onto the gradespeed website and began "playing" with the navigation features. One teacher would "discover" a function and share it with the rest of us. We spent about thirty minutes just exploring and sharing information. As weeks went by, teachers would get with their grade level peers and share new findings from the gradespeed site, or one teacher would send an email to the other teachers sharing some new feature and a quick "how to" instruction. Basically, we learned by "hands on" and sharing information. Our purpose was to learn as much as possible so that we could use the gradebook effectively to record information about our students. The experience could have been frustrating, but the support we gave each other made it a pleasant and engaging experience. We actually competed with each other to be the ONE to get credit for figuring out a particular feature - like how to record attendance. It was very social because we communicated with one another constantly. We teachers were willing and eager learners because we needed to record our grades for the six weeks reporting period, and there was no instructor because we learned from each other.

Overhead projector/document camera: When my district installed overhead projectors and document cameras in every classroom recently, we received no formal training. The only thing our technology department told us was that the white remote operated the overhead projector, and the black remote operated the document camera. This time my students became my collaborators in learning. The purpose was to learn how to turn on and use the document camera. The first day I attempted to use the camera, I got the projector turned on, but had trouble with the camera. Some of the sixth grade students left their seats and came up to show me what to do. They seem to be so instinctive about electronic devices. Together, we figured out how to get the camera turned on and how to use the many tools available. Some of these tools we learned right away, others we learned through the year as needed. It was not only engaging but also exciting because there was a “discovery” element to learning that camera. Sometimes the students discovered a new tool, sometimes I did. We would get excited about what we “found”. This was a very social experience since it involved my students – which made the experience fun. As far as roles, I merely supervised the process, but we learned from each other.

Building a fire: On a personal level, five years ago we moved into a new home that had a fireplace. We had never had a fireplace before so I did not know the techniques of building a fire. My husband showed me how to stack the wood, how to ignite the fire, and how to stoke it and maintain it. We also went online and found a web site about fireplaces that gave some helpful tips on the best type of wood to use, suggestions for starting the fire, how to clean the fireplace between fires, and how often to have the chimney swept. We also found information on the kinds of fireplace accessories we would need and where we could purchase those accessories.

It was fun for me to learn how to build a fire, because on many occasions, I’ve been able to surprise my husband by having a warm fire for him to come home to after work. It was engaging to learn because I knew that safety was involved and I had better do the thing right! It also gave me a sense of accomplishment and independency. There was no formal instruction, just my husband's prior knowledge/experience, and an online web site; and I was an eager learner.

SurveyMonkey: When I was assigned to use SurveyMonkey in an online course, I relied heavily on the tutorials that were available at the site. It was rather time consuming but very helpful. I felt good about myself when I used the tutorials to do my own troubleshooting. I ended up with a nice survey and I launched it successfully! I learned on my own but later I had the opportunity to share what I learned with a fellow student- so it was also a social experience. Again, there was no instructor involved - just the tutorial and me. It was very engaging because I had to pay close attention in order to learn how to build the survey - and I was getting a grade for it.

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

Two Evaluation Models:

The Logic Model

http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/images/logicmodel.jpg
Diagram of the logic model

Logic models are narrative or graphic illustrations of real life learning processes that use a systems approach to communicate the path toward the learning goal. This model connects the audience, activities, outputs, and outcomes to a problem or situation and then measures the performance of the learner after he/she completes the learning path. This model also helps the learner identify partnerships that can support and enhance the performance. The logic model allows concise communication about the purpose and components of the project as well as the sequence of the activities and accomplishments.

Initially, the logic model was designed for measuring performance. Later it was adapted for program planning as well. Although the sequence of the logic model begins with the input step and works through the outcomes step; experts in the field believe that this sequence may limit one’s thinking and foster a defense of the status quo rather than stimulate new ideas. Experts suggest that the sequence be reversed by focusing on the outcomes of the project. Also, the logic model is presented in a linear format but when necessary, order and timing should be addressed and adapted appropriately within the framework of the model according to the project at hand.

These are the elements of the logic model:
Situation – communicates the relevance of the project
*a statement of the problem – established a baseline for comparison
*A description of who is affected by the problem- helps determine if change has occurred
*Who else is interested in the problem? – to measure overall contribution

Inputs – communicates the quality of the project
*human resources - including faculty, staff, volunteers, partners, and local people
*fiscal resources – including appropriated funds, special grants, donations, and user fees
*other inputs needed for the project such as facilities and equipment
*knowledge base – including teaching materials, curriculum, research, certification standards, etc.
*involvement of collaborators – local, state, and national agencies or organizations

Outputs - those things we do and the people we reach
*publications – including articles, bulletins, fact sheets, CISs, handbooks, web pages
*decision aids – such as software, worksheets, models
*teaching events – such as workshops, field days, tours, short courses
*discovery/application activities – such as research plots, demonstrations plots, and product trials
*people reached (need to be the center of the model)- their characteristics/behaviors, number of people reached in the target group, learner objectives, number of sessions or activities attended, level of participant satisfaction

Outcomes – What happened as a result of the project or program?

Short-term outcomes
*awareness – customers recognize the problem or issue
*knowledge – customers understand the causes and potential solutions
*skills – customers possess the skills needed to resolve the situation
*motivation – customers have the desire to effect change
*attitude – customers believe their actions can make a difference

Intermediate-term outcomes
*practices used by participants
*behaviors exhibited by people or organizations
*policies adopted by businesses, governments, or organizations
*technologies employed by end users
*management strategies implemented by individuals or groups

Long-term outcomes
*improved economic conditions – increased income or financial stability
*improved social conditions – reduced violence or improved cooperation
*improved environmental conditions – improved air quality or reduced runoff
*improved political conditions – improved participation or opportunity

Evaluation should include measurable process indicators and measurable outcome indicators.
External factors within the system may affect outcome.

How I would use the Logic model in my instruction

Using this model I would first state the relevance of what I am about to teach my students. Referring back to character development, I would help students see what it looks like when a literary character is not developed – how vague that can make the plot, and the reader’s understanding can be too fuzzy. I would also turn their attention to real life when one does not know the character of another human being and how this can hinder a feeling of trust toward that individual.

To provide input, I would show visuals of literary and real characters such as movie clips, and news video streams. I would display and read selections from various literary works where the author developed the characters. I would also invite community members, members of the administration, coaches, other teachers and business persons to come and share how character analysis helps them in their daily personal and professional lives.

For output activities, I would plan a field trip to the wax museum where the students could see life size figures of real people who demonstrated both good character and bad character based on decisions and behaviors. They would see former presidents like Abraham Lincoln as well as murders like Jack the Ripper. I would use a virtual web site to take students on a “field trip” of literary characters that represented protagonists and antagonists in their roles. I would then have students select a real or literary character to role play before the classroom audience with a rubric of listed criteria by which they must comply.

I would then evaluate the outcomes of the learning experience. Short term goals would be that students are aware of the need to analyze characters in literature to help them understand the plot, and in real life for their own safety and success. Intermediate goals would be for the students to pay attention to character development in literature and how the author used that character to enhance the plot. Another intermediate goal would be that students apply character analysis everyday with their peers and with adults to help them gain a strong perspective of the influence of others around them.

My long term goal for the students is that character analysis would enable the students to become successful and productive in the real world in all realms: economically, socially, environmentally, and politically.


ASSURE Model

Analyze learners – includes number of students, age/grade, gender, socioeconomic status, cultural diversities, competencies, and learning styles.

State objectives – (learner centered) what the learner will do in real life situations stated in ABCD format:
Audience – for who are the objectives/goals intended?
Behavior – what do you want them to do? (observable, measurable and real world)
Condition – materials, equipment, and environment needed for student performance.
Degree – What degree of mastery is expected from the students?

Select, Modify, Design Methods, Media, & Materials – the instructor builds a bridge between the audience and the objectives.
Media selected must be effective and appropriate to the needs of the audience.

Utilize Methods, Media, & Materials – describe in detail how you are going to implement each item to help the learners meet the lesson’s objectives.

Require Learner Participation – describe how you are going to get each learner actively and individually involved in the lesson activities.

Evaluate and Revise –
Student performance
Media components
Instructor performance

How I would use the ASSURE model in my instruction

Before I ever began to introduce the lesson, I would analyze my student audience in order to discover their learning needs and any factors that might influence their learning in a negative or positive way.

Next, I would state what outcomes I want my students to learn based on the ABCD format. I would keep the lesson learner-centered and based on real life situations.
I would use verbs to describe what behavior I want the student to demonstrate and I would list all the items I need to create the appropriate learning condition. I would also determine and record to what degree I wish for the student to master the goals of the lesson.

I would then decide and list what methods I will use to teach the lesson, and what resources I wish to use in the lesson. I would select the resources – both human and material – that are most appropriate and effective for the student audience.

I would proceed to write down in complete sentences how I am going to utilize the methods and resources in order to meet the goals and objectives of the lesson. I would make certain that I have everything that I need, that it is all in working order and assessable. Then I would introduce the lesson by demonstrating how important it is for students to know the information they are about to learn. I would notify them that they are being evaluated on their performance and I will show the criteria I am using for the evaluation. As I present the lesson process, I will exhibit a positive and enthusiastic attitude which I hope will help stimulate the enthusiasm of each student.

During the lesson activities, I will be a “guide on the side” and require each student to participate actively and individually.

At lesson’s end, I will evaluate student performance, media effectiveness, and my own performance, and I will make modifications as needed.

Technological innovation
I have recently experienced a technological innovation in my personal life. I just purchased an iPhone4. This was a very big step for me due to several perceived attributes:
Relative advantage insured me that this innovation would offer me a better, faster, and more convenient way of communicating with others. I had only an inkling of what other features this device offered.
Compatibility was a factor to consider because I knew that as a future librarian and even as a current teacher, I needed to get my hands on new electronic devices in order to keep up with current technologies and become comfortable with using them.
Complexity was an issue because I thought the iPhone4 would be much too difficult for me to learn which would result in my never using it – all that money wasted!
Trialability was a concern because I knew I could try the cell phone and return it if I wanted to, but I did not think my busy schedule would allow me to make an extra out of town trip to the store to decide on an alternative, make the change – and maybe that change would not be an improvement.
Observability was the strongest support I experienced because I already had observed my sister’s iPhone, and the iPhones of other people, so I had a general idea of the unique features of this device.


In all the years that I have owned a cell phone, I have always opted for the cheap and simple model. But after learning to use new technologies as required in my online courses, I have gained so much confidence. I finally made the decision to pay the extra money for the iPhone4. The complexity of the iPhone4 – or the fear that it would be complex - was probably the hindering factor that propelled me to buy cheaper, simpler cell phones in the past. But the relative advantage and the compatibility attributes weighed heavily in my final decision to purchase the iPhone4. I have to report that I have never regretted my purchase. I have been mesmerized at the multitude of features that are embedded in this phone. I also have been amazed at the convenience that this device affords. I never thought I would become “addicted” but I have to admit I take my iPhone4 everywhere because it does everything! My purse is lighter because my one iPhone4 contains a calendar, a calculator, a phone, text messaging, email, gps, camera, address book, all the things I use in a day except money. I am sure Apple will soon figure out how to incorporate a way to use the iPhone for daily spending, too - if they have not already done so by this writing!

Situational Leadership

Project: Professional development on PolyVision electronic white boards which are soon to be installed into every classroom across the district.

Phase I: I would have a meeting after school in a central location such as the campus library. This meeting would take place on a different day for each campus. I would have one electronic board set up and then 30 computers available with the electronic white board software loaded and ready for use. I would have one teacher per computer so that each teacher gets hands on experience with using the software on the computer screen. I would walk through the steps of using the board and demonstrate on the actual board as teachers followed the steps from the computer screen “board”. I would point out as many positive aspects and features of the white board as possible in order to “sell” the idea to those who are reluctant to use whiteboards in their classrooms (and there are many teachers who are indeed reluctant). I would present about three lesson plans – a math lesson, a language arts lesson, and a science lesson - on the large demo board for teachers to follow from their computers. Teachers would be manipulating the board tools from their computer screens and they would have opportunity to ask as many questions as they need to ask. I would walk around and monitor closely and offer one-to-one help as needed. I would maintain a positive and enthusiastic attitude towards this new technology. I would also name school districts that have successfully implemented these boards in their instruction and even have some teachers from other districts give testimonials about their experiences with using the electronic boards.

Phase II: In another after school meeting, I would again have the teachers sit at computers to work the electronic board software. However, I would have two teachers come up to the actual demo board and work together to manipulate the tools and navigate the software features. I would allow each pair of teachers about 20 minutes to “play” with the electronic white board as the remaining teachers continue at computers. Then I would replace the pair of teachers with a different pair to come up and work the demo board. I would continue this until all teachers had a turn. Putting the teachers in pairs would help them feel more comfortable about working the board. I would again monitor the ones at computers and be readily available to help the pair of teachers that are working the actual demo board. I would continue to “sell” the idea of using electronic boards in teaching by maintaining a positive and enthusiastic personality.

Phase III: Time to install the boards in the individual classrooms! At this point, I would come to each classroom – after the boards have been installed - and during the teacher’s conference period to help them implement one of their lessons onto the board. I would allow them to navigate through the tools and features but I would be by their side to offer support if needed. Hopefully, I would have secured the teachers’ “buy in” and I would spend most of the time watching the teacher rather than helping the teacher.

Phase IV: Now each teacher has an electronic board in the classroom and each teacher is implementing the board daily in planning and instruction. As a leader, I would continue to come by the classroom - but less frequently - and check on each teacher to monitor their progress with using the board. I would offer that they instant message me if they have any problems needing immediate attention and I would insure them quick response. I would want them to feel confident that I am available and accessible any time they need my help. This would show them my interest in their needs, but it would also show them my confidence in their ability to work the electronic boards independently.

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

The learning goal that I have identified to teach is the author’s development of character in literature. I have selected two learning theories from Chapter 4 to demonstrate the achievement of this learning goal. The first learning theory I am using is the Cognitive Information Processing Theory, and the second theory I am using is Constructivism.

The Cognitive Information Processing Theory supports the idea that stimuli become input; behavior becomes output, and information processing is what happens in between.
Thus, the learner must pay attention in order to learn, make meaningful connections between the new information and prior knowledge, and be able to recall and apply information from memory. In order to teach characterization in literature, I would explain that the author helps the reader become acquainted with the characters by what the character does, and by what the character says in the story. I would then proceed to guide the learner to rely on his/her prior knowledge to think of someone they know and write down some character traits about that person based on what the learner saw the person do and what the learner heard them say. I would provide the learner with feedback to validate the correctness of this information or to provide information to modify the learner’s concept of characterization. I would then proceed to select various pieces of literature to read with the learner. I would have the learner identify the traits in the characters and note how the author developed these characters. For added emphasis, I would help the learner use highlighting tape to highlight the words, sentences, or passages that describe or demonstrate the personality of the character. With teacher guidance, the learner could use blue highlighting for words, sentences, and passages that describe one character, then use yellow to highlight information on the second character, and so on. According to information processing theory, this highlighting strategy, or use of graphical diagrams and imagery strategies can help learners make meaningful connections between their prior knowledge and new information. The last activity I would use is to find more literature pieces with developed characters, and have the learner continue to use the highlighting strategy to highlight the behaviors and dialog that show evidence and development of that character’s personality. The learner could transfer this information over to a three column chart (recommended graphics of information processing) labeled as such: Name of Character, Text Description/demonstration of Character, and Trait.

Constructivism works in contrast to the information processing theory. Information processing theory supports the idea that information comes from the outside (environment) into the learner. Constructivism, on the other hand, states that information learning occurs from the inside out. Constructivism is also more complex because it deals with higher levels of the thinking processes other than just comprehension and rote memory. To teach characterization using constructivism, I would use non-fiction literature selections as well as fiction. Students might determine the character behavior and traits of a former US president, or a famous sports personality. This would follow the constructivism theory of engaging learners in authentic or “real” activities. Working in pairs or groups with other students also exposes the learner to the perspectives of others which is another facet of constructivism. I would also have the learner set his/her own learning goals and regulate their learning accordingly, as constructivism dictates. For example, one learner might prefer to find common character traits among Democratic Presidents as compared to those of Republican Presidents. Another student might want to explore the character traits and behavior of a favorite super hero and that hero’s villain. Then, to allow students to reflect on what they learned, they could either produce a “wanted” poster on their characters or perform a brief role play of each character demonstrating those traits and behaviors. The student “audience” could make educated guesses of naming that character or person. The student who explores the character traits of former presidents could present a pre-written campaign speech for the one he/she supports, including the character traits of that person, in order to persuade and gain voters.

I found two references on Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction but the web site listed is the one I found the most helpful. I was skeptical that Lawson’s article did not describe Gagne’s events specifically – rather that it described just his earlier learning theories. Thus my table is based on information from the web site article.
http://www.csulb.edu/~dkumrow/conference/learning_theory.html

Lawson, T. (1974). Gagne's Learning Theory Applied To Technical Instruction. Training & Development Journal, 28(4), 32. Retrieved from Professional Development Collection database.


Table: Gagne’s Theory of Instruction vs. First Principles (My comments in green)

1. Gaining attention
(Striking a nerve – alert the learner to focus on what’s coming.)
1. Problem-centered (Let me do the whole task!)
- Real world problem/task
- Show component tasks leading to whole tasks
- Involve a progression
First principles imply the “big picture” to get students’ attention – Gagne states objectives or learning goals.

2. Informing the learner of the objective
(Learner personalize objective – own it)

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
(Learner remembers former knowledge that can be applied to new knowledge.)

2. Activation (Where do I start?)
- Learner apply prior knowledge or teacher supply relevant experience.
- Learner sees relevance/has confidence to learn
- Use graphic organizers to order information
Both Gagne and first principles applies prior learning

4. Presenting the stimulus
(Motivate the learner)


Gagne suggests activity or information that presents content to be learned. First principles suggest examples consistent with content to be learned. Basically the same concept.


3. Demonstration (Don’t just tell me, show me!)
- Demonstrate – show examples of what is to be learned
- Examples are consistent with content being taught
- Use learner guidance techniques (linguistic and nonlinguistic representation.
5. Providing learning guidance
(Use manipulatives/activities/and various media to guide and stimulate learning.)

Both Gagne and first principles encourage learner’s active participation.

4. Application (Let me do it!)
- Learner practices and applies new knowledge
- Practice and tests are consistent with objectives
- Practice followed by corrective feedback
- Provide coaching/support until learner is performing independently.
- Instruction requires learners to use their new knowledge/kill.

6. Eliciting performance
(Provide hands-on participation)

Gagne and first principles require learner to “perform” what he/she learned.

5. Integration (Watch me!)
- Provide techniques that enable learners to apply new knowledge/skill to everyday life.
- Provide opportunity for learner to publicly demonstrate new knowledge/skill.
- Provide opportunity for learner to reflect on new knowledge/skill.
- Provide opportunity for learner to create using new knowledge/skill


Implementation:
Facilitate learner navigation through the learning task
Appropriate learner control
Effective collaboration
Personalized instruction

7. Providing feedback
(Correct erroneous thinking; reinforce correct concepts)


First principle 4 provides feedback as well as coaching and support during learning process. Gagne provides feedback(7) and assessment(8).

8. Assessing performance
(Learner performs independently by applying new knowledge)


9. Enhancing retention and
Transfer
(Review learner on new knowledge/provide summary of the process learned.)
First principle states personalized instruction = Gagne states independent performance.

First principle 5 states integration of new knowledge = Gagne’s 9 transfer of new learning.


To apply the first principles to the goal of teaching character development in literature, I would present the idea that knowing about character traits will help students to become better judges of character in real life. This knowledge will protect them from deceptive people as well as enable them to identify people whom they can trust and on whom they can rely. Then I would have each student use a graphic organizer to describe someone they know. I would demonstrate character development by presenting many examples of passages from literature showing character development. I would use the overhead to show examples, and also show video clips of those same characters being portrayed in motion picture/TV. Then I would have each student apply this new learning. I would hand out copies of more passages that include development of character along with colored highlighters to allow students to color the pieces of information that describe or develop a particular character. I would monitor each student closely and offer corrective and positive feedback as needed. I would finally give each student the opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned by allowing them to select a person in real life to develop their character by dressing like that person and imitating their character traits/behaviors.

If I were using the whole-task approach to teach character development in literature, I would not only include fictitious characters, but I would also have students identify character traits in people they know personally, and in high-profile or famous people with whom they are familiar. This would provide them with a skill they can use in real life to determine how these people fit into the scheme of life, and in human interactions. In order to teach sets of objectives in the whole task approach, I would scaffold the learner’s performance by providing an example of someone we both know – either famous or not – and identifying their character traits and behaviors that reveal the traits in that person. I would encourage the learner to help me identify those traits and think of situations where that person’s behavior or response to a situation revealed their character. I would use mathemagenic methods to encourage high-risk learning that motivates the learner to invest more time and effort into applying the new skill of identifying character in both fictitious and living characters/persons. I would present someone like Adolf Hitler who showed leadership qualities and had an appealing oral presentation when he gave speeches, yet there was later discovered a “dark” side to his persona. I would have the learner research persons in literature, and in real life, misunderstood for the better or for the worse because of character traits and behavior they exhibited that led to erroneous conclusions about their character. I would hope that abstract knowledge would lead to newer learning about character development.

Table 9.2 ARCS model categories and subcategories
Topic of instruction: Characterization

Attention
Perceptual Arousal: Read some epitaphs from tombstones or funeral service flyers.

Inquiry Arousal: Ask students what they would like for others to say or write about them that displays their character traits.

Variability: Show video streams or clips of persons giving eulogies or introducing speakers. Point out the attributes the introducer lists about the speaker.

Relevance
Goal Orientation: I would make certain to address the cultural diversity represented in my classroom – such as American, Latino, Black, and Chinese.

Motive Matching: As I present the lesson, I would monitor closely for those students who may find the assignment challenging. I would adapt the assignment if necessary to keep it challenging yet doable, and keep the process in small steps to prevent frustration.

Familiarity: I would have students select persons of their own choice to identify character traits. They may select a family member, a close friend, or a famous person that they admire.

Confidence
Learning Requirements: I would closely monitor each student and provide feedback necessary to keep them on track and encouraged in completing the task.

Success Opportunities: Studying character traits in others will help students be more perceptive about others in society. They will learn that knowing the characters of others can help them build relationships that would be safe and provide camaraderie, or to avoid relationships that could prove dangerous or harmful.

Personal Control: The learner will acquire an awareness of character traits in others, and how to judge the character of others to determine if association is desirable or should be avoided. Each learner will have to be the judge in his/her own situation.

Satisfaction
Intrinsic Reinforcement: As students read their library books, they can record the page and paragraph numbers of a character’s dialogue and behavior and then list the character traits of that character.

Extrinsic Rewards: After the students finish their library books with the character documentation they complete, they can reflect on the ending of the book to determine if those traits were consistent with the character’s personality throughout the book.

Equity: I can encourage the student to use character analysis in daily life – not to necessarily judge people as superior or inferior – but to judge their character as a measure of how trustworthy and safe an association with that person would be. This could be applied in friendships, in politics, the work environment, or any real world situation.

Benefits of instructional design: After completing these activities, I see tremendous benefits of engaging in design research. I think instruction is much more potent, effective and relevant if one uses design research because it helps the facilitator think through the learning process very carefully. It provides a road map or blue print to detail every step of the learning process so that no “stone is left unturned”. Design research insures that the instructor is a “man with a plan” and is well prepared to execute that plan smoothly and successfully. Design research also provides a means for the learner to succeed at learning and applying the targeted skill. Research design provides a well thought out plan with a stimulating and detailed process which results in a successful, productive learner.

Section 1: Defining the Field

I have learned through previous courses that technology implementation was in progress as early as the 1950’s. However, I am amazed to learn that technology goes back as far as the 1910’s. The methods of instruction have certainly taken on many changes through these past decades. I must admit that many of those decades of changes I experienced first hand! As I reflect on the definitions of instructional design and how they have been redefined through the years, I see clearly that new definitions were necessary in order to adapt to new developments in teaching methods. Instructional design has transformed from a “seeing experience” to a “virtual experience.”

When it comes to terminology to describe this field, I personally prefer the term Educational Technology. In my opinion, Instructional Technology and Instructional design and technology sound teacher centered. These terms imply that a teacher – or someone – uses technology to instruct someone else. However; the term Educational Technology implies that while there may be a teacher, librarian, or other educator presenting or facilitating a lesson, there is the presence of a learner who is actively involved in obtaining and applying knowledge through the use of technology. Also, being a classroom teacher at this writing, I personally never cease to learn from others or from personal experiences. In my work environment, I do present concepts and model instruction, but I also offer opportunities for the students to “discover” information as they participate in group discussions, or as they use computers to locate and synthesize information. I find that I “discover” new information and skills along the way, too. In journal readings I see the progressive trend of using various electronic devices in the learning environment such as iPads, iPhones, and ebooks. I also find in these articles that students are learning independently much more in today’s classroom than the classroom of yesterday. I strongly believe that the learner needs a professional educator to expose them to these electronic devices, but I also believe that the learner should transition over to independency as soon as possible and take charge of new learning, with the professional educator close by to offer support when needed. Having said this, I redefine instructional design as follows:

Educational technology is the execution of best and ethical practices used to impart or acquire knowledge through technology applications that enhance those practices, and encourage active learning which results in enlightenment and independent application of new skills and knowledge. These practices will produce a life-long independent learner who is prepared to function productively in a global community.


It is interesting to me that we are studying instructional designs, because I just recently had this same conversation with my building principal in a meeting about C-scope. He gave handouts of two designs and we discussed the differences. One of the designs was more traditional, involving direct teaching, and would be a good guide to follow in teaching a particular skill to students. The other model was more inquiry/discovery based which would be effective for teaching a particular concept. I carefully studied the Dick & Carey design and I found it to be a strong, but also a broad guide for planning instruction. I compared the Dick & Carey model to the ones my principal gave me along with about three I found on the Internet. These three included the Backward Design by Wiggins & McTighe, the ASSURE Design by Heinich, Molenda, Russel, and Smaldino, and the Gerlach & Ely Design Model. (See Dick & Clark, Gerlach& Ely images above, and URL link for Backward Design posted below).

(click on images to enlarge)






http://www.arps.org/users/ms/coaches/backward%20design%20101.htm
(Backward Design)


It was difficult for me to see an area needing revision or omission in the Dick & Carey design. I thought I might take bits and pieces from the other models, add those to the Dick & Carey model and thus create a more perfected design. But after my efforts failed, I came to the following conclusion. I think the Dick & Carey model is the best model because one can take other parts from the other models and incorporate them into the D&C model. I find the D&C model to be so broad that I can add specifics to each area and still be following the model without changing it. I have also come to the conclusion, that how an educator approaches and presents a lesson depends on what the lesson is, and on the needs of the students who are participating in the lesson. So, I prefer the D&C model because it seems to be the most versatile design, and I think it would work well with the diversity of students we see in classrooms today.

The Dick & Carey model complies with all of the characteristics of instructional design:
Learner centered – The D&C centers on the learner because it provides assessment of the individual learner and his/her academic needs and learning styles.
Goal oriented – The D&C design addresses specific goals that the learner should achieve at the end of the project. These goals are written out at the beginning of the lesson so that both the instructor and the learner can keep them in focus as they progress through the project.
Meaningful performance – The D&C design allows the learner to not just “see” or “hear” but to actually “experience” or perform behaviors that are authentic and real.
Measured outcomes – The D&C model establishes the need for assessment instruments that are valid and reliable over passing of time and students. These assessments measure real behaviors that students will continue to perform within the global community.
Empirical, iterative, self-correcting instruction – The D&C design clearly makes room for the instructor to gather information on each student based on his/her performance during the project – from beginning to end. The instructor collects data that reveals what the student already knows, and what s/he needs to know. This data guides the instructor to precede one way or another in the instruction. This element allows for students to participate in active learning experiences, to hear repetition if needed, and to self-correct erroneous concepts.
Team effort – The D&C model supports the idea that student learning involves a team of experts to help in the project. The librarian, the community, and business persons can become partners in helping a student achieve a learning goal. This team effort is vital in producing a 21st century life-long learner.

The Dick & Carey model fits in my work environment because it provides a guide for planning instruction to meet all the educational needs of all individuals. Each of my students is very different in interests and backgrounds, so it is imperative to assess each student and provide differentiation in each learning project. It is equally important to have clear goals for the students to focus on so that they can better understand why they need to have the knowledge they will gain from the project. I have found that my students are much more involved in a lesson when they understand exactly what it is they are supposed to learn and why they need this information. As I have stated earlier and inferred in my definition, educational technology involves both the teacher and the learner, and many times they become one and the same = the teacher becomes the learner and the learner becomes the teacher. Education is a constant exchange of these two roles.


Based on what I’ve read about the history of technology in education, as well as what I know about technology innovations, I find electronic devices and tools to be very effective in instruction and learning. Teachers have interactive white boards to add zest to instructional practices, along with overhead projectors, and document cameras connected to Internet-connected computers. Students have access to Web 2.0 tools such as wikis, blogs, Skype, Google Earth, chat, Facebook, and numerous web sites that provide current and valid information. Technology has made it possible to bring unlimited resources into the hands of the instructor and learner. Futuristically, I see iPhones and iPads replacing textbooks as has already happened in some states. I also see more virtual learning taking place via telecommunications. I see educators using blogs and Facebook more in the classroom for global communication between students. I have used blogs on several occasions and I find them to be very effective tools for written expression, for exchange of ideas with others globally, and for imbedding hyper links and images to enhance presentation. It also provides a personal touch because the blog setup provides templates and features that the user may select to design the blog. In a public school classroom of any grade level, students could safely use a blog to demonstrate or reflect on something they learned, to express opinions/ideas, and to interact with the opinions and ideas of others following a code of ethics in the process.
As far as higher education and adult education, technology has become invaluable. Today, people can further, or continue, their education through online courses which are extremely convenient. Just a few short years ago, the added travel time and expense of gasoline prevented many from pursuing higher education degrees. But today, a majority of courses are offered online allowing more flexible scheduling for the user.
For the future, I foresee that there will be an increase in online course participation by under graduates as well as post graduates. I also foresee that more adults will learn technology skills by accessing online courses as well as tutorials available at various web sites. If one has access to an Internet-connected computer, there will be no limit to the amount of information, or to the technologies one can learn in order to keep up in this fast paced world.